When words can’t quite sum up a feeling, Ben Zank (previously) leans into a bizarre visual language. The New York-based photographer creates strange situations in which subjects find themselves subsumed by topiaries and shrubs or buttoned up with structural supports.
Captured in non-discernable locations, Zank’s images turn the banal into the surreal, while his witty titles—”Failed Columnist” and “Cloudy with a Chance of Despair”—amplify his penchant for humor.
Earlier this year, Zank published a monograph titled Nothing to See Here, which is available from Aliens in Residence. You can find more of his work on Instagram.
“Hot Local Landscapers Near You”“Failed Columnist”“Anxiety Takes a Holiday”“Half a Man”“Cloudy with a Chance of Despair”
In 1994, a lone wolf crossed the border from Italy into Switzerland. Within a year, there were two, then pups and sporadic sightings.
By 2012, Switzerland had its first stable wolf pack in well over 100 years.
The pack’s dominant female, known as F07, was first spotted by a camera trap in the canton of Grisons in southeaster Switzerland (where Davos, Klosters, and St. Moritz are) in 2011, when she was a year or two old.
For nine years F07 lived with the same mate, M30, on the Calanda Massif above the city of Chur—one of the longest continuously inhabited (by humans) places in Europe. They had 46 pups together in 8 litters.
Their pack was called Calanda, and their offspring have spread throughout the Alps and paired with wolves from Italy and France.
The Calanda pack has disbanded, but led to many more. By mid- 2023, Switzerland was home to at least 200 wolves in about 25 packs roaming primarily in Alpine environments.
By 2025, Switzerland is projected to have approximately 300 wolves in 40 packs.
Reintroducing Wolves to Yellowstone, Montana
Wolves returned to Yellowstone around the same time as Switzerland, but quite differently. On January 12, 1995 a horse trailer carrying Canadian wolves passed through the gate into Yellowstone National Park’s northwest entrance. Wolves had been absent from the park for nearly 70 years.
From 1995 to 1997, 41 wolves from Canada and northwest Montana were released in Yellowstone and dispersed to establish territories outside the park.
As of January 2024, at least 124 wolves roamed Yellowstone National Park in ten packs. Wolves in Yellowstone sit at the core of a larger population—approximately 500 wolves—throughout the much larger 34,375 square mile Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.
Gray wolf pack, Yellowstone National Park
Shared Grey Wolf Controversy
There are similarities and differences as wolves return to Switzerland and Yellowstone. One thing is nearly identical: it’s controversial.
Set in Gardiner, Montana just outside Yellowstone National Park, Nat Hab Film’s Big Bad Wolf shares conservation challenges and local perspective on the reintroduction of wolves. One resident said, “I’ve yet to find anyone who’s totally neutral about wolves; I think everyone has a strong opinion.”
The debate sounds different because it’s shaped by local culture, but almost everywhere people are taking sides on how wolves should be managed.
Economics & Culture Impact Opinions on Wolves
Around Gardiner, Montanathe economic value of wolf conservation travelis massive. One local study found that in 2022 wolf-viewing brought at least $82 million into the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. In the same year and county, the state paid out only $3,243 to ranchers for two wolf-related livestock deaths.
In Switzerland tourism of a different kind shapes thee debate. The pastoral culture that has developed in Switzerland over the last 150 years values freedom, peace and tranquility (read: quiet). The mountains have become hikers’ paradise, where herds of sheep, cattle and goats graze Alpine meadows unfenced and almost always unattended.
Letting sheep roam the Alps unattended during summer is a cherished Swiss tradition. Neither shepherds nor livestock guardian dogs have been widely used here in generations.
The Swiss debate on wolves is marked by a surprising, vocal resistance to livestock guardian dogs and fences. In some locales voters have even called for a complete ban of livestock guardian dogs, arguing that they scare off alpine tourists. Most news coverage of livestock guardian dogs frames them as costs to taxpayers.
When it comes to livestock guardian dogs, I am biased. I arrived alone in Switzerland from the USA with a Great Pyrenees-German Shepherd mix I met at the Boulder Valley Humane Society when he was only 8 weeks old. I always say I’m never sure who rescued whom.
Now, years later, my husband and I live with a pure-bred Great Pyrenees. We’ve encountered more negative reactions than we imagined—nevermind wolves, a shocking number of Swiss people (in the German-speaking cantons especially) are unaccustomed to—and afraid of—our thoroughly domesticated, furry family member. It’s not something I expected from the culture here.
Debates on wolf protection and management are far more about us than them. In fact, the data on wolves tells a very different story from public opinion.
In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, less than one tenth of one percent of livestock in wolf-occupied areas are lost to wolves. In Europe, wolf predation represents an annual killing of 0.065%. The impact of wolves on livestock is minimal.
In Switzerland, in the first 6 months of 2023, as the number of wolves increased, the number of attacks on livestock actually decreased due to increased protective measures, such as anti-wolf fencing.
About five times as many Alpine sheep are killed every year by falls, rockfall, parasites, lightning and disease than by wolves.
WWF has since stated in no uncertain terms: “Wolves in Europe are NOT dangerous to humans. There have been no fatal attacks on humans reported in Europe in the 21st century.”
In truth, the big bad wolf is not that big a problem.
Wolf Management in Montana & Switzerland
And yet in Switzerland and Yellowstone wolf management policies are complicated, contested and shifting. Programs exist to compensate farmers and support more biodiverse protection of livestock, but at the heart of the debate management means hunting.
Both Switzerland and Montana have reduced wolf protections in recent years.
Gray wolves and magpies in Montana
Effective January 4, 2021, reduced U.S. federal protections affected wolves in at least 44 states. During the 2021-2022 hunting season, 24 wolves from Yellwstone National Park were killed in neighboring states. Hundreds more wolves were killed—roughly 270 in Montana, 500 in Idaho and 30 in Wyoming. Montana and Idaho have been producing new laws to remove protections for wolves.
The Montana Fish and Wildlife Commission approved a quota of 334 wolves to be killed by hunting or trapping in the 2024-2025 season, an increase from the previous year’s quota of 313 wolves.
In Switzerland, in September 2020 more than half of Swiss voters (51.9%) rejected changes to hunting laws that allowed hunting of wolves. Gabor von Bethlenfalvy, large carnivore specialist at WWF Switzerland said in a press release, “The result shows that the Swiss population wants to strengthen and not weaken species protection.”
Despite the vote and having earmarked 7.7 million Swiss francs ($9 million) in 2024 for protecting flocks, conservative politicians in the federal government fast-tracked revisions that allowed for proactively hunting wolves—including shooting entire packs—even if they posed no threat.
Yellowstone National Park
Under the fast-tracked revisions, from 1 December 2023 to 31 January 2024, the cantons with a wolf population were allowed to kill a total of 12 packs and partially cull six more. The other 12 packs were to be left untouched. No one seems to know how these numbers were derived—wildlife biologists maintain that 20 packs must be left untouched to ensure the wolf’s survival in Switzerland.
The hunt was halted by the courts on 3 January due to objections from conservation organizations, but between December 2023 and January 2024 over 50 of Switzerland’s 300 wolves were killed.
WWF research has shown that the culling and hunting of wolves is usually ineffective and can be counterproductive in reducing attacks on livestock, unless it is carried out on a large scale—which could compromise the viability of wolf populations. In Yellowstone, killing females has even led to increased reproduction by other females in the pack.
Research also suggests that disrupting healthy packs by shooting wolves might lead to higher levels of livestock predation because lone wolves lack the support of a pack to hunt wild prey and are more likely to attack smaller animals.
Yellowstone National Park
Habitats of Coexistence in Portugal
Portugal offers another way forward. 9,000 people live in 92 villages in the protected Montesinho Natural Park in northern Portugal. 120 species of breeding birds and 70% of Portugal’s terrestrial animal species also live there, including a large population of Portugal’s Iberian wolves.
Iberian wolf, Portugal
The Iberian wolf is a subspecies of the grey wolf inhabiting northwestern Spain and northern Portugal, mostly north of the Duoro River. There are approximately 300 wolves in Portugal’s northern and central highlands, and 3,000 in neighboring Spain. Iberian wolves have been isolated from mixing with other wolf populations for over a century. They form one of the largest wolf populations in Western Europe.
Because wolves have lived in the region for thousands of years unabated, the local community has maintained a connection to traditional methods of preventing attacks, such as guard dogs, fences and shepherding.
While conflict with wolves is still a challenge in Central Portugal, attitudes towards wolves remain largely positive, too. For local farmers, wolves keep other animals like deer and boar, which damage chestnut and grain crops, in check.
Iberian wolf, Portugal
What’s needed? Education, Fences, Dogs & Wolf PR
How can more communities become more like Portugal? The three main threats to wolves are human-made. We have:
limited and fragmented wolf habitat,
severely limited wolves’ wild food sources (ungulates), and
killed wolves, including whole packs.
The solutions are ours to make, too.
Livestock protection measures are relatively straightforward and extremely effective. Resistance to using minimal protective measures is a far greater issue than wolves.
Wolf management should focus on:
Ensuring diversity and density of wild prey populations
Where wild prey is scarce, wolves are more likely to target livestock. Restoring habitats to increase the availability of natural prey is an effective measure to prevent attacks.
Electric fencing
Fencing may be all that’s needed to protect livestock from wolves. In some studies fixed enclosures have proven 100% effective.
Livestock guardian dogs
Presence of livestock guardian dogs can reduce attacks on livestock by up to 61%, and a combination of electric fences plus guard dogs is the most effective deterrent.
Shepherds
For over 20 years WWF has supported the Pastoraloup program set up by FERUS, a French association for the protection of large predators, to train shepherds in the Haute-Provence Alps. In 2024, the program received over 150 applications for 60 internships. Even without dogs, the presence oof a human shepherds can be a sufficient deterrent for wolves.
More than anything, though, wolves need good PR.
Iberian wolf, Portugal
Will we choose coexistence?
Whether they’re reintroduced, cross borders themselves, or are in areas where they never disappeared, living in close proximity with growing populations of wolves can be controversial—primarily because people are afraid of them and we have abandoned traditional livestock guarding methods.
Public opinion and practices in Portugal show a way forward that honors wolves and local communities.
Sara Wehrli, a wolf conservationist for Pro Natura, Switzerland’s oldest environmental organization has said, “The wolf is indigenous to Switzerland, so it’s just natural that it should return and play a part in the ecological system.”
Yellowstone National Park
In Montana, Colby Brokvist echoed that sentiment, “In my mind there’s not another creature on the planet that defines wilderness like wolves. I want wolves on the landscape because as simple as it may sound, they are symbols of a wilderness that I want to keep on this earth forever.”
Research shows wolves pose almost no threat to humans and surprisingly little threat to livestock compared to the extent of the debate.
In Nat Hab film’s Big Bad Wolf, Aaron Bott boils it down to this:
As wolves return to parts of their vast historic range, we must ask ourselves new questions: Are we going to choose to make room for them? Because it is a choice. We can choose to annihilate them. We did once. We have to choose to keep them here.
For me, the choice is clear.
For more on wolves, wolf reintroduction, wolf conservation travel
If you’d like to know more about wolves, wolf reintroduction in the American West, or wolf-focused conservation travel in Yellowstone National Park, here are more resources and opportunities:
Wolves were reintroduced to Colorado in December 2023. For more on that reintroduction, Check Out Nat Hab’s Daily Dose of Nature Webinar with wildlife biologist and Nat Hab Expedition Leader, Aaron Bott: The Pack is Back: Reintroducing Wolves to Colorado.
Looking for a wolf-centered Photo expedition? Nat Hab offers an immersive wolf-tracking expedition into Yellowstone’s remote Northern Range. This wolf-focused winter wildlife adventure spends four full days in Yellowstone’s famed Lamar Valley and Northern Range, the best spot anywhere for tracking wolf packs living freely in their natural environment.
In 1994, a lone wolf crossed the border from Italy into Switzerland. Within a year, there were two, then pups and sporadic sightings.
By 2012, Switzerland had its first stable wolf pack in well over 100 years.
The pack’s dominant female, known as F07, was first spotted by a camera trap in the canton of Grisons in southeaster Switzerland (where Davos, Klosters, and St. Moritz are) in 2011, when she was a year or two old.
For nine years F07 lived with the same mate, M30, on the Calanda Massif above the city of Chur—one of the longest continuously inhabited (by humans) places in Europe. They had 46 pups together in 8 litters.
Their pack was called Calanda, and their offspring have spread throughout the Alps and paired with wolves from Italy and France.
The Calanda pack has disbanded, but led to many more. By mid- 2023, Switzerland was home to at least 200 wolves in about 25 packs roaming primarily in Alpine environments.
By 2025, Switzerland is projected to have approximately 300 wolves in 40 packs.
Reintroducing Wolves to Yellowstone, Montana
Wolves returned to Yellowstone around the same time as Switzerland, but quite differently. On January 12, 1995 a horse trailer carrying Canadian wolves passed through the gate into Yellowstone National Park’s northwest entrance. Wolves had been absent from the park for nearly 70 years.
From 1995 to 1997, 41 wolves from Canada and northwest Montana were released in Yellowstone and dispersed to establish territories outside the park.
As of January 2024, at least 124 wolves roamed Yellowstone National Park in ten packs. Wolves in Yellowstone sit at the core of a larger population—approximately 500 wolves—throughout the much larger 34,375 square mile Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.
Gray wolf pack, Yellowstone National Park
Shared Grey Wolf Controversy
There are similarities and differences as wolves return to Switzerland and Yellowstone. One thing is nearly identical: it’s controversial.
Set in Gardiner, Montana just outside Yellowstone National Park, Nat Hab Film’s Big Bad Wolf shares conservation challenges and local perspective on the reintroduction of wolves. One resident said, “I’ve yet to find anyone who’s totally neutral about wolves; I think everyone has a strong opinion.”
The debate sounds different because it’s shaped by local culture, but almost everywhere people are taking sides on how wolves should be managed.
Economics & Culture Impact Opinions on Wolves
Around Gardiner, Montanathe economic value of wolf conservation travelis massive. One local study found that in 2022 wolf-viewing brought at least $82 million into the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. In the same year and county, the state paid out only $3,243 to ranchers for two wolf-related livestock deaths.
In Switzerland tourism of a different kind shapes thee debate. The pastoral culture that has developed in Switzerland over the last 150 years values freedom, peace and tranquility (read: quiet). The mountains have become hikers’ paradise, where herds of sheep, cattle and goats graze Alpine meadows unfenced and almost always unattended.
Letting sheep roam the Alps unattended during summer is a cherished Swiss tradition. Neither shepherds nor livestock guardian dogs have been widely used here in generations.
The Swiss debate on wolves is marked by a surprising, vocal resistance to livestock guardian dogs and fences. In some locales voters have even called for a complete ban of livestock guardian dogs, arguing that they scare off alpine tourists. Most news coverage of livestock guardian dogs frames them as costs to taxpayers.
When it comes to livestock guardian dogs, I am biased. I arrived alone in Switzerland from the USA with a Great Pyrenees-German Shepherd mix I met at the Boulder Valley Humane Society when he was only 8 weeks old. I always say I’m never sure who rescued whom.
Now, years later, my husband and I live with a pure-bred Great Pyrenees. We’ve encountered more negative reactions than we imagined—nevermind wolves, a shocking number of Swiss people (in the German-speaking cantons especially) are unaccustomed to—and afraid of—our thoroughly domesticated, furry family member. It’s not something I expected from the culture here.
Debates on wolf protection and management are far more about us than them. In fact, the data on wolves tells a very different story from public opinion.
In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, less than one tenth of one percent of livestock in wolf-occupied areas are lost to wolves. In Europe, wolf predation represents an annual killing of 0.065%. The impact of wolves on livestock is minimal.
In Switzerland, in the first 6 months of 2023, as the number of wolves increased, the number of attacks on livestock actually decreased due to increased protective measures, such as anti-wolf fencing.
About five times as many Alpine sheep are killed every year by falls, rockfall, parasites, lightning and disease than by wolves.
WWF has since stated in no uncertain terms: “Wolves in Europe are NOT dangerous to humans. There have been no fatal attacks on humans reported in Europe in the 21st century.”
In truth, the big bad wolf is not that big a problem.
Wolf Management in Montana & Switzerland
And yet in Switzerland and Yellowstone wolf management policies are complicated, contested and shifting. Programs exist to compensate farmers and support more biodiverse protection of livestock, but at the heart of the debate management means hunting.
Both Switzerland and Montana have reduced wolf protections in recent years.
Gray wolves and magpies in Montana
Effective January 4, 2021, reduced U.S. federal protections affected wolves in at least 44 states. During the 2021-2022 hunting season, 24 wolves from Yellwstone National Park were killed in neighboring states. Hundreds more wolves were killed—roughly 270 in Montana, 500 in Idaho and 30 in Wyoming. Montana and Idaho have been producing new laws to remove protections for wolves.
The Montana Fish and Wildlife Commission approved a quota of 334 wolves to be killed by hunting or trapping in the 2024-2025 season, an increase from the previous year’s quota of 313 wolves.
In Switzerland, in September 2020 more than half of Swiss voters (51.9%) rejected changes to hunting laws that allowed hunting of wolves. Gabor von Bethlenfalvy, large carnivore specialist at WWF Switzerland said in a press release, “The result shows that the Swiss population wants to strengthen and not weaken species protection.”
Despite the vote and having earmarked 7.7 million Swiss francs ($9 million) in 2024 for protecting flocks, conservative politicians in the federal government fast-tracked revisions that allowed for proactively hunting wolves—including shooting entire packs—even if they posed no threat.
Yellowstone National Park
Under the fast-tracked revisions, from 1 December 2023 to 31 January 2024, the cantons with a wolf population were allowed to kill a total of 12 packs and partially cull six more. The other 12 packs were to be left untouched. No one seems to know how these numbers were derived—wildlife biologists maintain that 20 packs must be left untouched to ensure the wolf’s survival in Switzerland.
The hunt was halted by the courts on 3 January due to objections from conservation organizations, but between December 2023 and January 2024 over 50 of Switzerland’s 300 wolves were killed.
WWF research has shown that the culling and hunting of wolves is usually ineffective and can be counterproductive in reducing attacks on livestock, unless it is carried out on a large scale—which could compromise the viability of wolf populations. In Yellowstone, killing females has even led to increased reproduction by other females in the pack.
Research also suggests that disrupting healthy packs by shooting wolves might lead to higher levels of livestock predation because lone wolves lack the support of a pack to hunt wild prey and are more likely to attack smaller animals.
Yellowstone National Park
Habitats of Coexistence in Portugal
Portugal offers another way forward. 9,000 people live in 92 villages in the protected Montesinho Natural Park in northern Portugal. 120 species of breeding birds and 70% of Portugal’s terrestrial animal species also live there, including a large population of Portugal’s Iberian wolves.
Iberian wolf, Portugal
The Iberian wolf is a subspecies of the grey wolf inhabiting northwestern Spain and northern Portugal, mostly north of the Duoro River. There are approximately 300 wolves in Portugal’s northern and central highlands, and 3,000 in neighboring Spain. Iberian wolves have been isolated from mixing with other wolf populations for over a century. They form one of the largest wolf populations in Western Europe.
Because wolves have lived in the region for thousands of years unabated, the local community has maintained a connection to traditional methods of preventing attacks, such as guard dogs, fences and shepherding.
While conflict with wolves is still a challenge in Central Portugal, attitudes towards wolves remain largely positive, too. For local farmers, wolves keep other animals like deer and boar, which damage chestnut and grain crops, in check.
Iberian wolf, Portugal
What’s needed? Education, Fences, Dogs & Wolf PR
How can more communities become more like Portugal? The three main threats to wolves are human-made. We have:
limited and fragmented wolf habitat,
severely limited wolves’ wild food sources (ungulates), and
killed wolves, including whole packs.
The solutions are ours to make, too.
Livestock protection measures are relatively straightforward and extremely effective. Resistance to using minimal protective measures is a far greater issue than wolves.
Wolf management should focus on:
Ensuring diversity and density of wild prey populations
Where wild prey is scarce, wolves are more likely to target livestock. Restoring habitats to increase the availability of natural prey is an effective measure to prevent attacks.
Electric fencing
Fencing may be all that’s needed to protect livestock from wolves. In some studies fixed enclosures have proven 100% effective.
Livestock guardian dogs
Presence of livestock guardian dogs can reduce attacks on livestock by up to 61%, and a combination of electric fences plus guard dogs is the most effective deterrent.
Shepherds
For over 20 years WWF has supported the Pastoraloup program set up by FERUS, a French association for the protection of large predators, to train shepherds in the Haute-Provence Alps. In 2024, the program received over 150 applications for 60 internships. Even without dogs, the presence oof a human shepherds can be a sufficient deterrent for wolves.
More than anything, though, wolves need good PR.
Iberian wolf, Portugal
Will we choose coexistence?
Whether they’re reintroduced, cross borders themselves, or are in areas where they never disappeared, living in close proximity with growing populations of wolves can be controversial—primarily because people are afraid of them and we have abandoned traditional livestock guarding methods.
Public opinion and practices in Portugal show a way forward that honors wolves and local communities.
Sara Wehrli, a wolf conservationist for Pro Natura, Switzerland’s oldest environmental organization has said, “The wolf is indigenous to Switzerland, so it’s just natural that it should return and play a part in the ecological system.”
Yellowstone National Park
In Montana, Colby Brokvist echoed that sentiment, “In my mind there’s not another creature on the planet that defines wilderness like wolves. I want wolves on the landscape because as simple as it may sound, they are symbols of a wilderness that I want to keep on this earth forever.”
Research shows wolves pose almost no threat to humans and surprisingly little threat to livestock compared to the extent of the debate.
In Nat Hab film’s Big Bad Wolf, Aaron Bott boils it down to this:
As wolves return to parts of their vast historic range, we must ask ourselves new questions: Are we going to choose to make room for them? Because it is a choice. We can choose to annihilate them. We did once. We have to choose to keep them here.
For me, the choice is clear.
For more on wolves, wolf reintroduction, wolf conservation travel
If you’d like to know more about wolves, wolf reintroduction in the American West, or wolf-focused conservation travel in Yellowstone National Park, here are more resources and opportunities:
Wolves were reintroduced to Colorado in December 2023. For more on that reintroduction, Check Out Nat Hab’s Daily Dose of Nature Webinar with wildlife biologist and Nat Hab Expedition Leader, Aaron Bott: The Pack is Back: Reintroducing Wolves to Colorado.
Looking for a wolf-centered Photo expedition? Nat Hab offers an immersive wolf-tracking expedition into Yellowstone’s remote Northern Range. This wolf-focused winter wildlife adventure spends four full days in Yellowstone’s famed Lamar Valley and Northern Range, the best spot anywhere for tracking wolf packs living freely in their natural environment.
Mangroves are one of Earth’s most critical ecosystems, buffering coasts from storm surges, serving as vital habitat for aquatic, semiaquatic and terrestrial species; and providing food and livelihoods for local communities.
They cover only 0.1% of Earth’s land surface, but the dense, dark canopies and roots of mangrove trees are one of our most powerful tools to build resilience as the climate changes.
Benefits of Mangrove Ecosystems
Mangrove forests provide a wealth of benefits for both people and nature. They:
Protect young fish, crabs, and other marine wildlife
Filter sediments, protecting coral reefs and seagrasses
Provide habitat for birds, bees, snakes, and other terrestrial fauna
Reduce impacts of coastal storm surges and flooding
Prevent erosion and stabilize coastlines
Support local fisheries, ecotourism, and local crafts
Mangroves are also powerful carbon sinks:
Mangroves store 7.5–10 times more carbon per acre, up to 4 times more per hectare, than terrestrial tropical forests.
Mangrove loss contributes to 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation.
Globally, mangroves hold approximately 21 gigatons of carbon, with WWF’s efforts aiming to protect and restore these crucial carbon sinks.
Restoring recently lost mangrove forests (1.6 million acres) could capture an additional 1 gigaton of carbon.
There’s good news, though: Mangrove restoration is relatively easy, fast and successful. WWF’s mangrove restoration projects have demonstrated high success rates, with some initiatives reporting a 62.5% to 82% success rate in areas like Colombia by focusing on native species and engaging local communities.
This article features 5 ways WWF is working to protect, restore and conserve some of the world’s most threatened mangrove habitats.
Mangrove nursery
1. Co-Founding the Global Mangrove Alliance
WWF teamed up with Conservation International, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and The Nature Conservancy to form the Global Mangrove Alliance with the goals:
reverse the loss of critically important mangrove habitats worldwide and
expand global mangrove habitat 20% by the year 2030.
“Mangroves are a powerful tool that nature has provided us, but we’re not doing enough, fast enough, to protect them,” said Lauren Spurrier, managing director of oceans for WWF.
Group of happy volunteers with tree seedlings, Volunteer helpers planting trees in mangrove forest for environmental protection and ecology, reduce global warming, Charity work
The alliance connects funders, experts, policymakers and local communities to accelerate a comprehensive, coordinated, global approach to mangrove conservation and restoration at a scale.
“It will take concerted action by many players to reverse declines and bring back what we’ve lost,” Spurrier said. “There is no time to duplicate efforts and waste resources. Bringing this work together through an alliance, allows us to focus our organizations in areas where we know we can have maximum impact.”
The Global Mangrove Alliance seeks to catalyze $10 billion in investments to improve the resilience of local coastal communities and improve the wellbeing of 10 million people worldwide.
2. Partnerships to Save Coastal Kenya Forests
The Public-Private-People Partnerships to Save Coastal Kenya Forests supports sustainable management and conservation of 30,000 hectares of critical mangrove and terrestrial forest ecosystems. The project focuses on mitigating environmental impacts of large-scale economic development by promoting energy and water efficiency while reducing their ecological footprint. It also builds capacity of local communities, government agencies, and the private sector to ensure effective, long-term ecosystem management.
Mangroves, Kenya
One of the key drivers of coastal forest degradation is the lack of information on mangrove ecosystem benefits. Mangroves are essential nesting grounds for fish—a key source of food. They also act to safeguard coastlines against typhoons.
WWF-Kenya’s Public-Private-People Partnerships to Save Coastal Kenya Forests Project focuses on:
terrestrial and mangrove forest protection and restoration, plus
supporting local community custodians of forests to appreciate the value of conservation, including indigenous knowledge and youth engagement.
This initiative is vital to enhance the resilience of Kenya‘s mangroves, which are crucial for biodiversity and coastal protection.
WWF collaborates with key partners to integrate local knowledge with advanced environmental safeguards. The project also supports global conservation objectives like the Aichi Targets and the Sustainable Development Goals, by embedding ecosystem values into regional policies and development plans, ensuring these ecosystems are preserved for future generations.
Young mangrove saplings
3. The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool
The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool is a key part of WWF’s global strategy to bolster mangrove restoration and protection efforts in response to climate change.
The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool is an advanced predictive tool that provides local communities a step-by-step process for assessing climate vulnerability and selecting climate-smart management actions.
The innovative decision-support tool combines satellite data, climate models, and local knowledge to help conservation practitioners:
identify the best areas for mangrove restoration and conservation, and
select appropriate climate-smart actions to reduce the current and future impacts of climate change on mangrove ecosystems.
The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool, developed by WWF in partnership with the University of Queensland,has been applied in Colombia, Madagascar, Fiji, and Mexico.
Pinpointing the most viable areas for restoration and conservation, the tool enhances the resilience of vital mangrove ecosystems, essential for preserving biodiversity and supporting coastal communities. The ability to predict and plan for future environmental changes makes the Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool an invaluable resource in the global fight against climate change, supporting both ecological and human coastal resilience.
4. ManglarIA – AI for Mangroves
ManglarIA, supported by WWF and Google.org, uses advanced technologies (LIDAR-equipped drones, eDNA sensors, and automated weather stations) on the Pacific and Gulf coasts of Mexico, particularly within biosphere reserves like Marismas Nacionales, to monitor the health of mangrove ecosystems with unprecedented precision.
The project utilizes AI to analyze vast datasets, predicting the impacts of climate change on these critical ecosystems. This data-driven approach is essential for guiding effective restoration efforts.
In Mexico, WWF is working to protect and restore mangrove ecosystems because of their importance to biodiversity and the contributions they make to local livelihoods and economies. Primary threats to Mexican mangroves include coastal development and climate change. More frequent hurricanes, changing rainfall, and sea level rise all can harm these complex ecosystems and the carbon they store.
By offering detailed insights into how mangroves respond to environmental stresses, ManglarIA (Spanish for “AI for Mangroves”) ensures that local conservation strategies are both impactful and sustainable.
The project also plays a vital role in supporting the resilience of local communities who rely on healthy mangrove ecosystems for their livelihoods. Visit one such community with Nat Hab’s Great Gray Whales of Baja itinerary, when we explore El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve.
5. Community-Based Conservation in Madagascar’s Mangroves
Two percent of the world’s mangroves are found in Madagascar, and 20% of these have been deforested for timber, charcoal production, and agricultural expansion.
In the Nat Hab film below, Expedition Leader Rija Ratotonirinia shares, “The main threat for the animals, for biodiversity in Madagascar, is habitat loss. 90% of our forest is gone due to slash and burn. Slash and burn agriculture is still one of our traditional ways of growing rice.”
Across Madagascar WWF is focused on ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction and supporting alternative livelihoods, so local communities value mangrove ecosystems and do not feel pressure to clearcut for their livelihood or survival. Alternatives to clearcutting include small-scale freshwater fish farming and mangrove beekeeping for honey, as well as ecotourism.
“I wish that we could bring back all of the things like it used to be, but now we have hope. Conservation travel is the best way for Madagascar. We can base part of our economy in tourism because everything we have is unique. Our guests come to Madagascar because we have such a high level of endemism. Biodiversity is so amazing here. We have in Madagascar so many varieties of landscape as well. The local people, they are conscious of this.” Expedition Leader Rija Ratotonirinia
According to Lilia Rasolofomanana, WWF Madagascar’s Mangrove Coordinator, “WWF is now collaborating with… community-based organizations to reinforce the community management of the mangroves, to reduce or even stop the threats to mangroves, to promote climate-smart restoration of this ecosystem and to improve the communities’ livelihoods and resilience to climate change.
Witness Madagascar’s Mangroves with Us
If you’d like to witness—and photograph—mangroves, there’s no place on the planet like Madagascar. Ninety percent of Madagascar’s plant, mammal and reptile species are found nowhere else on Earth.
In 2025, Nat Hab launches a new itinerary for its Madagascar Wildlife Photo Expedition, including visits to mangrove ecosystems in both the far north and south of the island:
Ifaty, on Madagascar’s southern coast, is a laid-back fishing village famed for its otherworldly and extraordinarily photogenic vegetation—spiny forest, barrel-like baobab trees and coastal mangroves. Bird life flourishes here, and we hope to catch a glimpse of the critically endangered Madagascar fish-eagle, one of the rarest birds of prey in the world. The landscape offers endless inspiration, from the stark vegetation to the diverse and threatened wildlife.
We travel by boat to northwest Madagascar’s Moramba Bay where we take a sunset cruise through the mangroves, and you may also opt to explore the coastline by kayak.
For over 20 years, Nat Hab and WWF have partnered to offer conservation travel—sustainable travel that supports the protection of nature, wildlife and local communities. Travel has the power to protect nature, benefit communities and preserve cultural heritage in coastal communities where, with WWF’s support, mangroves are being protected, resored, and expanded.
Mangroves are one of Earth’s most critical ecosystems, buffering coasts from storm surges, serving as vital habitat for aquatic, semiaquatic and terrestrial species; and providing food and livelihoods for local communities.
They cover only 0.1% of Earth’s land surface, but the dense, dark canopies and roots of mangrove trees are one of our most powerful tools to build resilience as the climate changes.
Benefits of Mangrove Ecosystems
Mangrove forests provide a wealth of benefits for both people and nature. They:
Protect young fish, crabs, and other marine wildlife
Filter sediments, protecting coral reefs and seagrasses
Provide habitat for birds, bees, snakes, and other terrestrial fauna
Reduce impacts of coastal storm surges and flooding
Prevent erosion and stabilize coastlines
Support local fisheries, ecotourism, and local crafts
Mangroves are also powerful carbon sinks:
Mangroves store 7.5–10 times more carbon per acre, up to 4 times more per hectare, than terrestrial tropical forests.
Mangrove loss contributes to 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation.
Globally, mangroves hold approximately 21 gigatons of carbon, with WWF’s efforts aiming to protect and restore these crucial carbon sinks.
Restoring recently lost mangrove forests (1.6 million acres) could capture an additional 1 gigaton of carbon.
There’s good news, though: Mangrove restoration is relatively easy, fast and successful. WWF’s mangrove restoration projects have demonstrated high success rates, with some initiatives reporting a 62.5% to 82% success rate in areas like Colombia by focusing on native species and engaging local communities.
This article features 5 ways WWF is working to protect, restore and conserve some of the world’s most threatened mangrove habitats.
Mangrove nursery
1. Co-Founding the Global Mangrove Alliance
WWF teamed up with Conservation International, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and The Nature Conservancy to form the Global Mangrove Alliance with the goals:
reverse the loss of critically important mangrove habitats worldwide and
expand global mangrove habitat 20% by the year 2030.
“Mangroves are a powerful tool that nature has provided us, but we’re not doing enough, fast enough, to protect them,” said Lauren Spurrier, managing director of oceans for WWF.
Group of happy volunteers with tree seedlings, Volunteer helpers planting trees in mangrove forest for environmental protection and ecology, reduce global warming, Charity work
The alliance connects funders, experts, policymakers and local communities to accelerate a comprehensive, coordinated, global approach to mangrove conservation and restoration at a scale.
“It will take concerted action by many players to reverse declines and bring back what we’ve lost,” Spurrier said. “There is no time to duplicate efforts and waste resources. Bringing this work together through an alliance, allows us to focus our organizations in areas where we know we can have maximum impact.”
The Global Mangrove Alliance seeks to catalyze $10 billion in investments to improve the resilience of local coastal communities and improve the wellbeing of 10 million people worldwide.
2. Partnerships to Save Coastal Kenya Forests
The Public-Private-People Partnerships to Save Coastal Kenya Forests supports sustainable management and conservation of 30,000 hectares of critical mangrove and terrestrial forest ecosystems. The project focuses on mitigating environmental impacts of large-scale economic development by promoting energy and water efficiency while reducing their ecological footprint. It also builds capacity of local communities, government agencies, and the private sector to ensure effective, long-term ecosystem management.
Mangroves, Kenya
One of the key drivers of coastal forest degradation is the lack of information on mangrove ecosystem benefits. Mangroves are essential nesting grounds for fish—a key source of food. They also act to safeguard coastlines against typhoons.
WWF-Kenya’s Public-Private-People Partnerships to Save Coastal Kenya Forests Project focuses on:
terrestrial and mangrove forest protection and restoration, plus
supporting local community custodians of forests to appreciate the value of conservation, including indigenous knowledge and youth engagement.
This initiative is vital to enhance the resilience of Kenya‘s mangroves, which are crucial for biodiversity and coastal protection.
WWF collaborates with key partners to integrate local knowledge with advanced environmental safeguards. The project also supports global conservation objectives like the Aichi Targets and the Sustainable Development Goals, by embedding ecosystem values into regional policies and development plans, ensuring these ecosystems are preserved for future generations.
Young mangrove saplings
3. The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool
The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool is a key part of WWF’s global strategy to bolster mangrove restoration and protection efforts in response to climate change.
The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool is an advanced predictive tool that provides local communities a step-by-step process for assessing climate vulnerability and selecting climate-smart management actions.
The innovative decision-support tool combines satellite data, climate models, and local knowledge to help conservation practitioners:
identify the best areas for mangrove restoration and conservation, and
select appropriate climate-smart actions to reduce the current and future impacts of climate change on mangrove ecosystems.
The Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool, developed by WWF in partnership with the University of Queensland,has been applied in Colombia, Madagascar, Fiji, and Mexico.
Pinpointing the most viable areas for restoration and conservation, the tool enhances the resilience of vital mangrove ecosystems, essential for preserving biodiversity and supporting coastal communities. The ability to predict and plan for future environmental changes makes the Climate-Smart Mangrove Tool an invaluable resource in the global fight against climate change, supporting both ecological and human coastal resilience.
4. ManglarIA – AI for Mangroves
ManglarIA, supported by WWF and Google.org, uses advanced technologies (LIDAR-equipped drones, eDNA sensors, and automated weather stations) on the Pacific and Gulf coasts of Mexico, particularly within biosphere reserves like Marismas Nacionales, to monitor the health of mangrove ecosystems with unprecedented precision.
The project utilizes AI to analyze vast datasets, predicting the impacts of climate change on these critical ecosystems. This data-driven approach is essential for guiding effective restoration efforts.
In Mexico, WWF is working to protect and restore mangrove ecosystems because of their importance to biodiversity and the contributions they make to local livelihoods and economies. Primary threats to Mexican mangroves include coastal development and climate change. More frequent hurricanes, changing rainfall, and sea level rise all can harm these complex ecosystems and the carbon they store.
By offering detailed insights into how mangroves respond to environmental stresses, ManglarIA (Spanish for “AI for Mangroves”) ensures that local conservation strategies are both impactful and sustainable.
The project also plays a vital role in supporting the resilience of local communities who rely on healthy mangrove ecosystems for their livelihoods. Visit one such community with Nat Hab’s Great Gray Whales of Baja itinerary, when we explore El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve.
5. Community-Based Conservation in Madagascar’s Mangroves
Two percent of the world’s mangroves are found in Madagascar, and 20% of these have been deforested for timber, charcoal production, and agricultural expansion.
In the Nat Hab film below, Expedition Leader Rija Ratotonirinia shares, “The main threat for the animals, for biodiversity in Madagascar, is habitat loss. 90% of our forest is gone due to slash and burn. Slash and burn agriculture is still one of our traditional ways of growing rice.”
Across Madagascar WWF is focused on ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction and supporting alternative livelihoods, so local communities value mangrove ecosystems and do not feel pressure to clearcut for their livelihood or survival. Alternatives to clearcutting include small-scale freshwater fish farming and mangrove beekeeping for honey, as well as ecotourism.
“I wish that we could bring back all of the things like it used to be, but now we have hope. Conservation travel is the best way for Madagascar. We can base part of our economy in tourism because everything we have is unique. Our guests come to Madagascar because we have such a high level of endemism. Biodiversity is so amazing here. We have in Madagascar so many varieties of landscape as well. The local people, they are conscious of this.” Expedition Leader Rija Ratotonirinia
According to Lilia Rasolofomanana, WWF Madagascar’s Mangrove Coordinator, “WWF is now collaborating with… community-based organizations to reinforce the community management of the mangroves, to reduce or even stop the threats to mangroves, to promote climate-smart restoration of this ecosystem and to improve the communities’ livelihoods and resilience to climate change.
Witness Madagascar’s Mangroves with Us
If you’d like to witness—and photograph—mangroves, there’s no place on the planet like Madagascar. Ninety percent of Madagascar’s plant, mammal and reptile species are found nowhere else on Earth.
In 2025, Nat Hab launches a new itinerary for its Madagascar Wildlife Photo Expedition, including visits to mangrove ecosystems in both the far north and south of the island:
Ifaty, on Madagascar’s southern coast, is a laid-back fishing village famed for its otherworldly and extraordinarily photogenic vegetation—spiny forest, barrel-like baobab trees and coastal mangroves. Bird life flourishes here, and we hope to catch a glimpse of the critically endangered Madagascar fish-eagle, one of the rarest birds of prey in the world. The landscape offers endless inspiration, from the stark vegetation to the diverse and threatened wildlife.
We travel by boat to northwest Madagascar’s Moramba Bay where we take a sunset cruise through the mangroves, and you may also opt to explore the coastline by kayak.
For over 20 years, Nat Hab and WWF have partnered to offer conservation travel—sustainable travel that supports the protection of nature, wildlife and local communities. Travel has the power to protect nature, benefit communities and preserve cultural heritage in coastal communities where, with WWF’s support, mangroves are being protected, resored, and expanded.
In 2001, WWF declared the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) “the most endangered cat species and the only endemic large carnivore in Europe.”
At the time, the situation for the Iberian lynx was dire: They were found in just a handful of isolated pockets of Spain and Portugal, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimated the population had dwindled to just 62 mature individuals.
Populations had declined from 15 subpopulations in the 1940s to only two subpopulations in the early 1990s. The species had experienced an 80% range loss between 1960 and 1990. By 1980, the Portuguese lynx populationwas estimated at no more than 50 individuals.
Today, the Iberian lynx population, including young and mature cats, is estimated to be more than 2,000. As a result, in June 2024, the IUCN removed the Iberian lynx from the Endangered list, upgrading its status to Vulnerable.
This article explores the journey of the Iberian lynx from near extinction to a conservation success story, highlighting key actions, challenges and prospects. WWF plays a critical role in those efforts.
About the Iberian Lynx
In the early 19th century, thousands of Iberian lynx inhabited Spain, Portugal and Southern France. Fossils suggest the species has been present in Iberia since the end of the Early Pleistocene, around one million years ago, and that its range has extended far into France and Italy.
An adult Iberian lynx is heavily spotted, weighs 22–29 pounds, and has long legs and a very short tail with a black tip.
Female lynxes generally give birth in March and April. The average litter size is 3, but it is rare for 3 Iberian lynx cubs to survive weaning—mortality rates are high. Kits become independent at 7 to 10 months old but remain with the mother until around 20 months old. The survival of the young depends heavily on the availability of prey species.
The Iberian lynx depends heavily on wild rabbits to feed, but it will also eat ducks, young deer and partridges if rabbit densities are low. An adult lynx needs about one rabbit per day; a mother raising lynx kits might need three.
Iberian lynx
Iberian lynx prefer open grassland mixed with dense shrubs such as strawberry tree, mastic, and juniper, and trees such as holm oak and cork oak and mark their territory with urine, scratch marks on the barks of trees, and scat.
Adult home ranges remain stable over many years. Camera trap surveys in the eastern Sierra Morena Mountains between 1999 and 2008 revealed that six females had home ranges of 2-2.5 square miles, and four males had home ranges of 4.6-4.7 square miles.
The number of Iberian lynxes declined steadily during the 20th century, and at the beginning of the 2000s, only two isolated breeding populations remained, both located in southern Spain. These populations totaled about 100 adult animals, with only 25 breeding females.
This dramatic decrease was primarily due to habitat destruction, reduction in prey (particularly the European rabbit), and human-induced threats such as poaching, road accidents, and habitat fragmentation and alteration.
The Iberian lynx is not very adaptable because it relies on rabbits for 75% of its food intake. European rabbit numbers have suffered repeated population crashes due to myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease.
Conservation Success through Collaborative Efforts
Thanks to reintroduction and captive breeding projects, the Iberian lynx population has significantly increased. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) have been pivotal for the lynx’s recovery. These strategies include the establishment of wildlife corridors and the preservation of the species’ natural habitat, which not only benefit the lynx but also support other species and enhance local ecosystems.
One of the cornerstones of this success has been the active restoration of Mediterranean scrub and forest habitats. The European rabbit has also received full protection, which iscrucial for the survival of the Iberian lynx.
To further bolster Iberian lynx resilience against threats like disease and poaching, conservationists implemented translocations and an ex-situ breeding program to enhance genetic diversity. This comprehensive approach has made the Iberian lynx more robust and better able to withstand environmental pressures.
These successes were achieved through the dedicated collaboration of government bodies, scientific institutions, NGOs, private companies and local communities. These groups have formed a multifaceted conservation strategy supported by the European Union LIFE project. WWF has played a pivotal role in various initiatives, demonstrating the power of collective effort.
Key conservation actions have included:
Prey Management: By 2022, efforts to boost the population of the European rabbit had significantly increased numerous populations, ensuring a stable food supply for the lynx, crucial for their continued recovery.
Habitat Restoration: Restoration and protection of Mediterranean scrub and forest habitats increased lynx habitat from 19 square miles in 2005 to at least 1,282 square miles in 2024. (The numbers seem improbable but are accurate according to the IUCN.)
This expansion was achieved through significant reforestation efforts, land management and the creation of wildlife corridors. According to WWF, these restored habitats have not only supported the lynx but also benefited other species like the imperial eagle and various amphibians.
Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity was enhanced through translocations and an ex-situ breeding program. More than 400 lynx have been reintroduced to parts of Portugal and Spain since 2010. As of 2023, these efforts have led to the establishment of several new breeding populations across the Iberian Peninsula, demonstrating the success of the genetic management strategies.
Reducing Human-Induced Deaths: Measures to minimize deaths caused by road accidents and poaching included the creation of wildlife corridors and safe road crossings. Additionally, educational campaigns have raised awareness among local communities about the importance of lynx conservation, resulting in decreased poaching incidents and better coexistence.
WWF has been heavily involved in habitat protection, prey management and public awareness campaigns. WWF-Spain has secured custody agreements with 18 estates covering more than 62,000 acres, to protect lynx habitats and boost rabbit populations. Additionally, WWF’s captive breeding program has released 45 lynxes into their natural habitats by mid-2015, significantly aiding the species’ recovery.
WWF’s Iberian Lynx Projects
WWF’s commitment to the Iberian lynx has spanned several decades, focusing on critical conservation areas:
LIFE Iberlince Project: This project aims to recover the historic distribution areas of the Iberian lynx in Spain and Portugal. By restoring habitats and creating wildlife corridors, the project has successfully reintroduced lynxes into areas where they had previously disappeared. Local communities are actively involved in conservation efforts, ensuring sustainable land use practices that benefit both the lynx and local economies. This project has been credited with doubling the lynx population in some areas within a decade, highlighting its effectiveness.
Custody Agreements: WWF-Spain has played a crucial role in establishing custody agreements with private landowners in key regions such as Sierra Morena, Montes de Toledo and Doñana. These agreements have led to the restoration of lynx habitats and the management of rabbit populations, creating a safer and more sustainable environment for the lynx to thrive. As a result, lynx sightings in these areas have increased by 30% over the past five years.
Captive Breeding and Reintroduction: WWF’s successful captive breeding program focuses on breeding healthy lynxes and preparing them for release into the wild. This initiative has led to the reintroduction of over 50 lynxes into their natural habitats, significantly boosting the wild population. The program has achieved a breeding success rate of over 70%, considered high for such an endangered species.
Public Awareness and Education: WWF has prioritized raising awareness about the Iberian lynx’s plight. WWF has fostered a sense of stewardship among local populations through educational campaigns, community engagement, and collaboration with local schools. These efforts are essential in reducing human-wildlife conflicts and promoting conservation-friendly practices. WWF’s campaigns have reached over 100,000 people in lynx habitats, significantly contributing to local support for conservation measures.
Protecting the Lynx Population in Portugal & Spain
By 2022, the population of mature individuals had risen to 648, with the total population (including young lynx) exceeding 2,000. IUCN Director General Dr. Grethel Aguilar noted, “The improvement in the Red List status of the Iberian lynx shows that successful conservation works for wildlife and communities alike.”
Despite the remarkable recovery, the Iberian lynx still faces several challenges:
Fluctuating Prey Populations: The European rabbit population is susceptible to disease outbreaks, which can impact lynx numbers.
Disease: The lynx is vulnerable to diseases from domestic cats and other animals.
Human-Induced Threats: Poaching and road kills remain significant threats, particularly in areas where high-traffic roads intersect lynx habitats.
Climate Change: Habitat alterations related to climate change pose a growing threat to the species.
Juan Carlos del Olmo, CEO of WWF-Spain, emphasized the need for continued efforts: “To ensure a viable and safe population, we must increase today’s wild Lynx population by threefold by 2040. This requires addressing threats such as accidental killings and legally prosecuting deaths caused by shooting, snares or traps.”
Iberian Lynx Conservation: Future Plans
Looking ahead, conservationists have ambitious plans to ensure the long-term survival of the Iberian lynx.
These include:
Reintroductions: Plans to reintroduce the lynx to new sites in central and northern Spain.
Habitat and Prey Management: Continued efforts to restore and protect habitats and manage prey populations.
IUCN Green Status Assessment: The Iberian lynx’s status as “Largely Depleted” reflects the ongoing need for conservation. However, the species could achieve “Fully Recovered” status in 100 years with sustained efforts.
Francisco Javier Salcedo Ortiz, Coordinator of the LIFE Lynx-Connect project, stated, “There is still a lot of work to do to ensure that Iberian lynx populations survive and the species recovers throughout its indigenous range.”
Dr. Barney Long, from Re: Wild and Co-Chair of the IUCN Green Status Working Group, added, “The significant recovery of the Iberian lynx demonstrates that even the most threatened species can be brought back from the brink of extinction through committed, science-based conservation action.”
Join Nat Hab on the Iberian Peninsula
Nat Hab hosts a European adventure kayaking Portugal’s Upper Duoro River Valley. On the August through October itinerary, guests paddle through the Douro International Natural Park, with Portugal on one bank and Spain on the other.
The 335 square mile protected area was created in May 1998 to protect the inspiring scenery and wildlife, including eagles, red kites, griffon vultures, herons, wild boar and one of the last packs of wolves in the Tras-os-Montes region, which lives a few miles inland from the river. Natural vegetation covers the banks along this stretch of the river, with woodlands of juniper and cork oak beyond.
There are no established Iberian lynx populations in the Douro Valley—yet. Recent conservation efforts have focused on expanding the lynx’s range across the Iberian Peninsula and maintaining plentiful prey populations in the Duoro Valley.
These efforts have led to sightings and the establishment of lynx populations in other parts of Portugal, particularly in the Guadiana Valley. Thanks to targeted reintroduction programs, in the Guadiana Valley, there were 53 breeding females, 100 kits and a total of 291 specimens in 2023.
The Douro International Natural Park’s conservation activities, such as habitat restoration and biodiversity protection, contribute indirectly to the overall health of ecosystems that support numerous species, including the Iberian lynx. The park’s efforts in maintaining healthy habitats and promoting sustainable land use practices are crucial for the broader conservation initiatives that benefit the lynx population in Portugal.
Conservationists hope that lynx could expand into more suitable habitats within Portugal, including areas like the Upper Douro Valley.
Continuing the Iberian Lynx’s Remarkable Rebound
Once teetering on the brink of extinction, the Iberian lynx has made an astonishing comeback, demonstrating the power of dedicated conservation efforts. The story of the Iberian lynx is far from over. According to WWF estimates, Iberian lynx numbers would need to reach 3,000-3,500 individuals, including around 750 reproductive females, to be eligible to be considered as being in a ‘favorable State of Conservation’ according to European regulations.
Continued conservation efforts that address threats to lynx, support the recovery of decimated rabbit populations, help create new lynx populations, and connect existing ones are critical to reaching such a goal by 2040.
The Iberian lynx’s remarkable rebound is a powerful testament to the effectiveness of dedicated conservation efforts. From a population of just 62 mature individuals in 2001 to over 2,000 in 2024, the lynx’s recovery is one of the greatest recoveries of a cat species ever achieved through conservation. It underscores the importance of collaborative, science-based conservation actions.
In 2001, WWF declared the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) “the most endangered cat species and the only endemic large carnivore in Europe.”
At the time, the situation for the Iberian lynx was dire: They were found in just a handful of isolated pockets of Spain and Portugal, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimated the population had dwindled to just 62 mature individuals.
Populations had declined from 15 subpopulations in the 1940s to only two subpopulations in the early 1990s. The species had experienced an 80% range loss between 1960 and 1990. By 1980, the Portuguese lynx populationwas estimated at no more than 50 individuals.
Today, the Iberian lynx population, including young and mature cats, is estimated to be more than 2,000. As a result, in June 2024, the IUCN removed the Iberian lynx from the Endangered list, upgrading its status to Vulnerable.
This article explores the journey of the Iberian lynx from near extinction to a conservation success story, highlighting key actions, challenges and prospects. WWF plays a critical role in those efforts.
About the Iberian Lynx
In the early 19th century, thousands of Iberian lynx inhabited Spain, Portugal and Southern France. Fossils suggest the species has been present in Iberia since the end of the Early Pleistocene, around one million years ago, and that its range has extended far into France and Italy.
An adult Iberian lynx is heavily spotted, weighs 22–29 pounds, and has long legs and a very short tail with a black tip.
Female lynxes generally give birth in March and April. The average litter size is 3, but it is rare for 3 Iberian lynx cubs to survive weaning—mortality rates are high. Kits become independent at 7 to 10 months old but remain with the mother until around 20 months old. The survival of the young depends heavily on the availability of prey species.
The Iberian lynx depends heavily on wild rabbits to feed, but it will also eat ducks, young deer and partridges if rabbit densities are low. An adult lynx needs about one rabbit per day; a mother raising lynx kits might need three.
Iberian lynx
Iberian lynx prefer open grassland mixed with dense shrubs such as strawberry tree, mastic, and juniper, and trees such as holm oak and cork oak and mark their territory with urine, scratch marks on the barks of trees, and scat.
Adult home ranges remain stable over many years. Camera trap surveys in the eastern Sierra Morena Mountains between 1999 and 2008 revealed that six females had home ranges of 2-2.5 square miles, and four males had home ranges of 4.6-4.7 square miles.
The number of Iberian lynxes declined steadily during the 20th century, and at the beginning of the 2000s, only two isolated breeding populations remained, both located in southern Spain. These populations totaled about 100 adult animals, with only 25 breeding females.
This dramatic decrease was primarily due to habitat destruction, reduction in prey (particularly the European rabbit), and human-induced threats such as poaching, road accidents, and habitat fragmentation and alteration.
The Iberian lynx is not very adaptable because it relies on rabbits for 75% of its food intake. European rabbit numbers have suffered repeated population crashes due to myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease.
Conservation Success through Collaborative Efforts
Thanks to reintroduction and captive breeding projects, the Iberian lynx population has significantly increased. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) have been pivotal for the lynx’s recovery. These strategies include the establishment of wildlife corridors and the preservation of the species’ natural habitat, which not only benefit the lynx but also support other species and enhance local ecosystems.
One of the cornerstones of this success has been the active restoration of Mediterranean scrub and forest habitats. The European rabbit has also received full protection, which iscrucial for the survival of the Iberian lynx.
To further bolster Iberian lynx resilience against threats like disease and poaching, conservationists implemented translocations and an ex-situ breeding program to enhance genetic diversity. This comprehensive approach has made the Iberian lynx more robust and better able to withstand environmental pressures.
These successes were achieved through the dedicated collaboration of government bodies, scientific institutions, NGOs, private companies and local communities. These groups have formed a multifaceted conservation strategy supported by the European Union LIFE project. WWF has played a pivotal role in various initiatives, demonstrating the power of collective effort.
Key conservation actions have included:
Prey Management: By 2022, efforts to boost the population of the European rabbit had significantly increased numerous populations, ensuring a stable food supply for the lynx, crucial for their continued recovery.
Habitat Restoration: Restoration and protection of Mediterranean scrub and forest habitats increased lynx habitat from 19 square miles in 2005 to at least 1,282 square miles in 2024. (The numbers seem improbable but are accurate according to the IUCN.)
This expansion was achieved through significant reforestation efforts, land management and the creation of wildlife corridors. According to WWF, these restored habitats have not only supported the lynx but also benefited other species like the imperial eagle and various amphibians.
Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity was enhanced through translocations and an ex-situ breeding program. More than 400 lynx have been reintroduced to parts of Portugal and Spain since 2010. As of 2023, these efforts have led to the establishment of several new breeding populations across the Iberian Peninsula, demonstrating the success of the genetic management strategies.
Reducing Human-Induced Deaths: Measures to minimize deaths caused by road accidents and poaching included the creation of wildlife corridors and safe road crossings. Additionally, educational campaigns have raised awareness among local communities about the importance of lynx conservation, resulting in decreased poaching incidents and better coexistence.
WWF has been heavily involved in habitat protection, prey management and public awareness campaigns. WWF-Spain has secured custody agreements with 18 estates covering more than 62,000 acres, to protect lynx habitats and boost rabbit populations. Additionally, WWF’s captive breeding program has released 45 lynxes into their natural habitats by mid-2015, significantly aiding the species’ recovery.
WWF’s Iberian Lynx Projects
WWF’s commitment to the Iberian lynx has spanned several decades, focusing on critical conservation areas:
LIFE Iberlince Project: This project aims to recover the historic distribution areas of the Iberian lynx in Spain and Portugal. By restoring habitats and creating wildlife corridors, the project has successfully reintroduced lynxes into areas where they had previously disappeared. Local communities are actively involved in conservation efforts, ensuring sustainable land use practices that benefit both the lynx and local economies. This project has been credited with doubling the lynx population in some areas within a decade, highlighting its effectiveness.
Custody Agreements: WWF-Spain has played a crucial role in establishing custody agreements with private landowners in key regions such as Sierra Morena, Montes de Toledo and Doñana. These agreements have led to the restoration of lynx habitats and the management of rabbit populations, creating a safer and more sustainable environment for the lynx to thrive. As a result, lynx sightings in these areas have increased by 30% over the past five years.
Captive Breeding and Reintroduction: WWF’s successful captive breeding program focuses on breeding healthy lynxes and preparing them for release into the wild. This initiative has led to the reintroduction of over 50 lynxes into their natural habitats, significantly boosting the wild population. The program has achieved a breeding success rate of over 70%, considered high for such an endangered species.
Public Awareness and Education: WWF has prioritized raising awareness about the Iberian lynx’s plight. WWF has fostered a sense of stewardship among local populations through educational campaigns, community engagement, and collaboration with local schools. These efforts are essential in reducing human-wildlife conflicts and promoting conservation-friendly practices. WWF’s campaigns have reached over 100,000 people in lynx habitats, significantly contributing to local support for conservation measures.
Protecting the Lynx Population in Portugal & Spain
By 2022, the population of mature individuals had risen to 648, with the total population (including young lynx) exceeding 2,000. IUCN Director General Dr. Grethel Aguilar noted, “The improvement in the Red List status of the Iberian lynx shows that successful conservation works for wildlife and communities alike.”
Despite the remarkable recovery, the Iberian lynx still faces several challenges:
Fluctuating Prey Populations: The European rabbit population is susceptible to disease outbreaks, which can impact lynx numbers.
Disease: The lynx is vulnerable to diseases from domestic cats and other animals.
Human-Induced Threats: Poaching and road kills remain significant threats, particularly in areas where high-traffic roads intersect lynx habitats.
Climate Change: Habitat alterations related to climate change pose a growing threat to the species.
Juan Carlos del Olmo, CEO of WWF-Spain, emphasized the need for continued efforts: “To ensure a viable and safe population, we must increase today’s wild Lynx population by threefold by 2040. This requires addressing threats such as accidental killings and legally prosecuting deaths caused by shooting, snares or traps.”
Iberian Lynx Conservation: Future Plans
Looking ahead, conservationists have ambitious plans to ensure the long-term survival of the Iberian lynx.
These include:
Reintroductions: Plans to reintroduce the lynx to new sites in central and northern Spain.
Habitat and Prey Management: Continued efforts to restore and protect habitats and manage prey populations.
IUCN Green Status Assessment: The Iberian lynx’s status as “Largely Depleted” reflects the ongoing need for conservation. However, the species could achieve “Fully Recovered” status in 100 years with sustained efforts.
Francisco Javier Salcedo Ortiz, Coordinator of the LIFE Lynx-Connect project, stated, “There is still a lot of work to do to ensure that Iberian lynx populations survive and the species recovers throughout its indigenous range.”
Dr. Barney Long, from Re: Wild and Co-Chair of the IUCN Green Status Working Group, added, “The significant recovery of the Iberian lynx demonstrates that even the most threatened species can be brought back from the brink of extinction through committed, science-based conservation action.”
Join Nat Hab on the Iberian Peninsula
Nat Hab hosts a European adventure kayaking Portugal’s Upper Duoro River Valley. On the August through October itinerary, guests paddle through the Douro International Natural Park, with Portugal on one bank and Spain on the other.
The 335 square mile protected area was created in May 1998 to protect the inspiring scenery and wildlife, including eagles, red kites, griffon vultures, herons, wild boar and one of the last packs of wolves in the Tras-os-Montes region, which lives a few miles inland from the river. Natural vegetation covers the banks along this stretch of the river, with woodlands of juniper and cork oak beyond.
There are no established Iberian lynx populations in the Douro Valley—yet. Recent conservation efforts have focused on expanding the lynx’s range across the Iberian Peninsula and maintaining plentiful prey populations in the Duoro Valley.
These efforts have led to sightings and the establishment of lynx populations in other parts of Portugal, particularly in the Guadiana Valley. Thanks to targeted reintroduction programs, in the Guadiana Valley, there were 53 breeding females, 100 kits and a total of 291 specimens in 2023.
The Douro International Natural Park’s conservation activities, such as habitat restoration and biodiversity protection, contribute indirectly to the overall health of ecosystems that support numerous species, including the Iberian lynx. The park’s efforts in maintaining healthy habitats and promoting sustainable land use practices are crucial for the broader conservation initiatives that benefit the lynx population in Portugal.
Conservationists hope that lynx could expand into more suitable habitats within Portugal, including areas like the Upper Douro Valley.
Continuing the Iberian Lynx’s Remarkable Rebound
Once teetering on the brink of extinction, the Iberian lynx has made an astonishing comeback, demonstrating the power of dedicated conservation efforts. The story of the Iberian lynx is far from over. According to WWF estimates, Iberian lynx numbers would need to reach 3,000-3,500 individuals, including around 750 reproductive females, to be eligible to be considered as being in a ‘favorable State of Conservation’ according to European regulations.
Continued conservation efforts that address threats to lynx, support the recovery of decimated rabbit populations, help create new lynx populations, and connect existing ones are critical to reaching such a goal by 2040.
The Iberian lynx’s remarkable rebound is a powerful testament to the effectiveness of dedicated conservation efforts. From a population of just 62 mature individuals in 2001 to over 2,000 in 2024, the lynx’s recovery is one of the greatest recoveries of a cat species ever achieved through conservation. It underscores the importance of collaborative, science-based conservation actions.
“My work arises from the interplay between memory and the present,” says Bogotá-based illustrator Alefes Silva.
Themes of stillness and solitude, growth and death, and love and heartbreak recur in Silva’s drawings, which fuse fantastic plants and animals with human details. In one piece, a nude figure slumps over while trees and small shrubs grow from its back, while another depicts a brilliant, red sapling sprouting from a red-headed woman.
“Each element carries a specific meaning within my work, tied to a moment in memory, part of a dream or desire,” he adds.
Silva balances his practice with editorial commissions from magazines and publishers and personal projects. He’s currently working on four illustrated books, including a gardening diary and explorations of birds and grasshoppers.
“My work arises from the interplay between memory and the present,” says Bogotá-based illustrator Alefes Silva.
Themes of stillness and solitude, growth and death, and love and heartbreak recur in Silva’s drawings, which fuse fantastic plants and animals with human details. In one piece, a nude figure slumps over while trees and small shrubs grow from its back, while another depicts a brilliant, red sapling sprouting from a red-headed woman.
“Each element carries a specific meaning within my work, tied to a moment in memory, part of a dream or desire,” he adds.
Silva balances his practice with editorial commissions from magazines and publishers and personal projects. He’s currently working on four illustrated books, including a gardening diary and explorations of birds and grasshoppers.
Thousands of individual flowers and plants grown in Meggan Joy’s Seattle garden form the contours of her ethereal figures. The artist (previously) collages perfectly trimmed photographs of each specimen into silhouettes lush with color and texture.
In her most recent body of work titled Fever Dream, Joy draws on fear, loss, and the immense potential for pain. “Wide and Wild,” for example, depicts a woman cradling a Eurasian Eagle Owl near her heart. “She’s a piece for when you find your person (whether that be a lover, friend, kids, whatever), and once you have them, you know that if they disappear in any way, you also will be gone,” the artist shares in a statement.
“Wide and Wild”
Others relate to bad decisions yielding positive experiences and how etermal bonds require patience and understanding. Each work, Joy shares, “whisper(s) the components of the stories that tested us and, instead of condemning our faults, reveal that those moments left us the most exciting scars.
